Synchronising the chronologies of the Late Bronze Age Southern Levant and Egypt: a radiocarbon dating perspective

<p>The framework and absolute dating of the Late Bronze Age (LBA) in the southern Levant has long been heavily based upon Egyptian chronology. While New Kingdom chronology is robust, the dating of local strata relies on material culture connections that are limited in number, indirect in nature, and often imprecise. Radiocarbon (¹⁴C) dating provides a means to develop a local chronology and independently check external synchronisms at a time when Egyptian and Levantine histories are particularly closely intertwined. The method has been applied with good effect to the Early-Middle Bronze and Iron Ages, and this research seeks to fill a gap by applying radiocarbon and Bayesian analysis to LBA chronology.</p> <p>The thesis comprises case studies of three key LBA sites, followed by region-wide evaluations of the two major chronological debates that mark the start and end of the LBA. The case studies present new ¹⁴C datasets from the Shephelah sites of Lachish, Gezer and Azekah, re-evaluate their site histories and check specific synchronisms with Egypt. The region-wide studies systematically evaluate new and published data on an individual site-by-site basis, reviewing the transition processes and comparing them to Egyptian history.</p> <p>This study uses a multi-pronged approach, with sampling of old and new excavation areas to efficiently develop long ¹⁴C sequences that can be developed into robust Bayesian chronological models using stratigraphic constraints. As far as possible, the analysis is kept independent from conventional pottery-based relative dating, relying on models of single sites or excavation areas.</p> <p>Outcomes of the thesis include: 1) a nuanced understanding of the destruction process marking the onset of the MBA-LBA transition; 2) identification of substantial early LBA settlements based on the re-dating of strata, with consequent improved agreement between text and archaeology; 3) a re-shuffling of remains attributable to the Amarna period at case study sites; 4) evaluation of the timeline by which the Canaanite city-state system collapsed and Egypt lost control of the region; and 5) clarification of radiocarbon implications for Philistine chronology.</p>