The synergistic effects of music and exercise on psychological and cognitive outcomes

<p dir="ltr">Music is a common accompaniment to many forms of exercise. While an extensive body of research has demonstrated the cognitive and physical benefits of exercise - particularly for older adults - relatively little is known about how music, as a coordinating and emotional stimulus, might enhance, supplement, or independently contribute to these benefits. This thesis addresses two overarching research objectives: (1) to determine whether exercising with music offers cognitive benefits beyond those of exercise alone, and (2) to identify the mechanisms by which music enhances exercise-related outcomes. Chapter 1 introduces these objectives by reviewing the literature on the role of music in both acute and long-term exercise and summarising key theoretical perspectives in the field. Chapters 2 and 3 address the first objective with a focus on older adults at risk of or experiencing age-related cognitive decline. Chapter 2 presents a synthesis of meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials, showing that both aerobic exercise and dance improve cognition in adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), with dance offering superior benefits for memory. The analysis suggests that exercise that is coordinated with music can offer advantages beyond exercise alone. Chapter 3 reports a network meta-analysis comparing dance, aerobic exercise with music, and aerobic exercise without music. Results indicate that aerobic exercise with music yields the greatest improvements in global cognition, executive function, and processing speed, while dance is especially effective for memory-related outcomes. Chapters 4 and 5 address the second research objective by investigating potential mechanisms through empirical studies. Chapter 4 reports an experiment showing that directing attention to music during high-intensity exercise enhances positive emotional experience. Chapter 5 presents evidence that synchronising movements to musical rhythm improves emotional responses and may enhance inhibitory control by reducing perceived exertion. Chapter 6 synthesises all the findings across the thesis and proposes a novel conceptual framework - the Music-Exercise Synergy Framework - to explain how music and exercise interact to produce acute and long-term benefits via synergistic mechanisms and motivational pathways. The framework incorporates modifiable (e.g., attentional focus, musical preference) and non-modifiable (e.g., age, cognitive status) factors that influence outcomes. Collectively, the thesis provides compelling evidence that music-supported exercise - particularly when involving movements that are synchronised to musical rhythm - not only enhances mood and reduces perceived effort during exercise, but can also lead to lasting cognitive benefits in individuals with cognitive impairment. These findings have practical implications for individual exercisers, intervention designers, and policymakers aiming to optimise exercise programs for both cognitive and emotional well-being.</p>